Neuroscience and Individualized Education to Support Children’s Learning

Author(s): Scott Douglas Jacobsen

Publication (Outlet/Website): The Good Men Project

Publication Date (yyyy/mm/dd): 2025/07/11

Dr. Rebecca Mannis, founder of Ivy Prep, brings over thirty-five years of expertise in supporting children and adults with learning differences. With advanced degrees from Teachers College, Columbia University, and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, Dr. Mannis is a leading authority on individualized education, neuroscience, and adaptive technology. In conversation with Scott Douglas Jacobsen, she discusses the importance of physical and emotional safety, a “new TLC” (Temperament, Learning profile, Culture), and positive role models for child development. Mannis highlights neuroscience’s evolving role in education, the benefits of multilingualism, fostering resilience, and practical strategies to support both learning and mental health.

Scott Douglas Jacobsen: So today, we’re here with Dr. Rebecca Mannis, a renowned learning specialist and founder of Ivy Prep. She has over thirty-five years of experience supporting children and adults in New York City and internationally. She holds a Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Teachers College, Columbia University, specializing in neuroscience and education. She also earned a master’s in Reading, Language, and Learning Disabilities from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. 

Dr. Mannis consults with schools and corporations on individualized education plans (IEPs), learning disabilities, and integrating adaptive technologies in education. She previously coordinated education services for the Making Headway Foundation, a nonprofit that supports children with brain and spinal cord tumours, and served on the Harvard Graduate School of Education Alumni Council from February 2009 to 2014. What do children need developmentally and emotionally to thrive?

Dr. Rebecca Mannis: Let’s consider this from the perspective of an educator, a neuroscientist, and—as I often emphasize—a parent. There are several key factors. First and foremost, children need to feel safe.

They require both physical and emotional safety and access to high-quality education. Of course, safety and education have different meanings depending on how a child develops individually and what is happening in the surrounding society. As part of that, children must experience a healthy balance of support and structure and sufficient latitude to explore and grow based on their unique traits.

Thanks to neuroscience and careful observation of children and families, we now understand that while developmental patterns exist, everyone is distinct.

I sometimes describe these distinctions using a term I coined: “the new TLC.” Traditionally, TLC meant tender loving care. While loving support remains critical today, we must also consider temperament, learning profile, and culture. Hence, “the new TLC.”

So, what does that stand for?

• T is for Temperament. Each child is born with a distinct temperament—just as they are born with eye colour or a genetic predisposition for specific interests. Some children are slower to warm up, some are more sensitive or reactive, and others may be unflappable in new situations. Understanding a child’s temperament helps adults respond more effectively to their needs.
• L is for Learning Profile. Every individual has a unique constellation of cognitive strengths and challenges. Some children excel in verbal reasoning, others in spatial or motor skills. These differences—rooted in brain development—affect how children process information and interact with their environment. Acknowledging and supporting diverse learning profiles is essential for fostering growth.
• C stands for Culture or Context. A child’s cultural background, family dynamics, community resources, and national or regional norms shape a child’s development. Each of these contexts provides both opportunities and constraints, and must be accounted for when we think about what it means for a child to thrive.

Finally, children need role models—adults who exemplify curiosity, resilience, kindness, and integrity. These role models are crucial for helping children envision their own paths and build emotional and intellectual resilience. They need to see adults and peers who model decency, fortitude, ways to create meaning, and ways to stay engaged—to hopefully help them grow into good people and contribute to making our society a better place.

Jacobsen: How does neuroscience enhance the approaches to individualized education for children with learning differences?

Mannis: Neuroscience is a field that is constantly evolving. We now have access to valuable information, even going back a hundred years to the origins of neuropsychology, which essentially began as researchers observed soldiers returning from World War I with cognitive deficits due to brain injuries. From these cases, clinicians and scientists began to understand that damage to specific brain regions, such as the front left side, could result in language deficits, leading to insights about which brain areas mediate specific cognitive functions like language. Today, thanks to advances in knowledge, assessment procedures, and imaging tools, we can apply these insights to enhance educational approaches and revisit some long-held assumptions. 

One example of an assumption we are rethinking involves dual language learning. It was once thought that children exposed to multiple languages from a young age—such as in a multilingual home—might experience delays in language development due to confusion. Now, what we understand is more nuanced. For some children at risk for dyslexia or with primary language difficulties, multilingualism can add a layer of complexity, but it is something we can work with and support.

For most children, however, research shows that while developing grammar skills or transferring language knowledge to reading might take a bit longer, dual or multiple language exposure is not inherently detrimental but complementary. For example, a child might be simultaneously learning English and Ukrainian, Hebrew and English, or even Farsi, Hebrew, and English. We now know that the brain systems responsible for language and critical thinking are consolidating—perhaps at a slower pace as the child integrates multiple languages—but this process strengthens cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness.

So, neuroscience is helping us understand that multilingualism is an asset rather than a hindrance for most children.

As we learn more about how people grow and learn, we can use this information to benefit children formally and informally. This knowledge from neuroscience, gathered through various methods, helps us foster development and address areas of vulnerability. For instance, if a child has recently moved to the United States from another country and is dyslexic, we can apply these insights to provide the proper support and scaffolding for that child.

Another example, which is less commonly discussed, concerns giftedness. We now know that giftedness is not about a parent pushing a child because the child must go to Yale. Some individuals are born with a greater capacity or inclination to develop in certain areas and may progress differently. We now have a clearer understanding of their needs and competencies and what kinds of support and opportunities are appropriate for them. Neuroscience enables us to provide parents and communities with information to meet these children’s unique needs and help them develop their strengths.

Jacobsen: What are effective strategies to cultivate strong mental health in children?

Mannis: Mental health is a core concern for all of us now, whether we recognize its role in overall individual growth and community well-being, or whether we’re responding to challenges such as increases in racism or antisemitism, the impact of COVID-19, or rethinking the role of social media and screen time. Supporting mental health is essential. Some strategies are quite practical but always benefit from a brain-based, developmental approach.

The first and perhaps most powerful strategy is modelling. There is no greater teacher or role model than a parent. Parents can demonstrate healthy coping and growth through their behaviours and experiences when cultivating strong mental health.

For example, one way is to try something new. You might not be naturally gifted at singing, but if your children see you participating in a chorus once a week and practicing to learn the notes and sing with others, you are showing them that it’s valuable to face challenges, continue finding new interests, and grow from those experiences.

Another way parents can support mental health is by modelling kindness. This includes how you respond to others—whether declining an invitation, extending yourself to help, or encouraging another person in something vital to them. When you engage with people who see things differently, practicing active listening and showing respect while being sincere about your own opinions teaches children how to navigate differences constructively. Part of being a strong role model is demonstrating good communication skills.

Managing frustration is one of the most important things for parents to model today. We live in a society with many opportunities for exploration, achievement, and gratification—but also frequent chances for disappointment and annoyance. How we handle setbacks—grace, kindness, and resilience—makes a lasting impression because our children are always observing. They listen to our words and watch our actions to see whether they are aligned or inconsistent.

Another way parents can help cultivate strong mental health in children is by monitoring their growth and having open conversations about what is on their minds. Sometimes, this means intentionally setting aside time for discussion or simply taking advantage of informal moments—such as while driving to a Yankees game or a Mariners game—to talk about situations that may be concerning or interesting to them. 

It’s also essential to give children opportunities to stretch themselves, encounter frustration as they pursue goals, and experience the “window of tolerance.” This is where they can try something challenging, derive absolute pleasure and success from the experience, and ultimately learn how to persevere through difficulties that matter to them.

Jacobsen: Is kids’ mental health under more duress in high-competition contexts—Shanghai, Seoul, Tokyo, New York City, London, Singapore, Hong Kong, Toronto, Vancouver, Bangalore, or Paris?

Mannis: That is such an important question because there are both distinct factors affecting how children are growing up and how families are functioning in those environments and many commonalities. For example, some families have highly involved parents; others have a sibling facing illness or a child who is bright and eager to study advanced math but also has ADHD or OCD.

Children everywhere are adjusting to adolescence, trying to understand the changes in their bodies, minds, and interests over time. So, the first thing I would say is that we need to focus on the commonalities shared by children in different situations and recognize that there is enormous variability within each city or context.

We also have to consider how we observe and measure mental health in these contexts. In some environments, children are subjected to very intensive tutoring. As a learning specialist, I spend my days providing individualized tutoring, guiding students through college preparation, and teaching study skills for high-stakes tests—all to help children become more independent learners. However, not all tutoring serves this purpose. In some places—be it New York, Shanghai, or Bangalore—there exists a culture of high-pressure tutoring focused on test performance. Children may spend weekends being drilled extensively by tutors.

Research shows that while these children might gain specific academic skills more quickly—such as learning to decode complex words or mastering multiplication tables—the long-term effects are less clear. The evidence is mixed regarding whether this approach sustains their interest in learning or helps them become self-motivated and independent thinkers. There are also questions about whether intensive tutoring dampens their intrinsic motivation to learn for curiosity and joy.

As we discussed before, the concept of TLC—tender loving care—states that showing love and support is crucial for children and students. However, when addressing issues like anxiety or obsessive-compulsive disorder, one of the greatest gifts we can give a young person is not to accommodate or reinforce what is difficult for them. In other words, supporting children means helping them face challenges rather than shielding them from all discomfort.

If a child is shying away from learning their times tables, one of the best gifts we can offer is to give them the tools and encouragement to persevere—showing them they do not need to put their energy into avoidance or self-effacement.

Do we say that overturning or a hyper-focus on skills and drills is always detrimental? Not necessarily. Sometimes, it takes away from the joy of learning and fostering independence. On the other hand, there are times when providing those structures does a great deal of good for an individual learner.

Jacobsen: How can adaptive technology and AI be used responsibly and integrated into a child’s learning experience?

Mannis: I’ll add one anecdote that I recently came across in a news item. I’m unsure if this was misreported, but I saw it, so I’ll share. A student felt frustrated after being chastised by a teacher for using ChatGPT in school. However, the student later observed the teacher using ChatGPT themselves and justifying it. The students said they felt as if they wanted a refund for the course because of the perceived hypocrisy.

This example illustrates the importance of modeling—exactly as you mentioned—and the need for an ethical approach to using AI in educational contexts. Responsible use is not just about the tools themselves but about how adults model their use for students.

Current technological tools, including artificial intelligence, offer tremendous potential, but they also require thoughtful and responsible integration. Much of the conversation centers around how technology is used, whether AI or other digital platforms. In reflecting on this, Scott, I am reminded of a point famously made by one of the founders of neuropsychology.

We discussed earlier that neuropsychology developed as a field in both Russia and the United States, often in response to understanding the challenges faced by soldiers returning from World War I with head injuries. By systematically studying patterns of brain function and deficits, the field advanced significantly. One of the most famous figures in Boston was Professor Edith Kaplan. She often said that while developing assessment tools and measures is essential, a good neuropsychologist always remembers that what truly matters is how those tools are used to benefit the individual.

Test publishing and textbook publishing are big businesses, and many excellent tools are available. However, Dr. Kaplan was ahead of her time in emphasizing that the critical element is how we, as humans, use those tools thoughtfully and tactically and share that knowledge to support individual growth and inform policy.

Here is an example of using AI in my practice with students. I have a student who has a tremendous interest in the history of music but reads at a lower reading level. That child may know many facts and have strong conceptual skills, but if their decoding skills—their ability to read individual words or longer sentences—need development, then my instruction and their practice become crucial. Otherwise, their comprehension will be compromised. So, we want to provide that child with targeted skill-building and plenty of practice.

We want to make the learning process more engaging by incorporating their interests. For instance, I have used AI, with carefully designed prompts, to generate content about famous musicians or baseball teams that appeals to the student’s interests but also contains sentences of manageable length and includes factual, inferential, or higher-order thinking questions. Of course, I review and further edit this material, but that is an example of how access to AI can be excellent and how it can be a terrific educational tool.

Many schools—public, private, and Ivy League universities—are also beginning to incorporate AI into their programs. For example, Emory University announced this year that it is launching a minor in artificial intelligence because it recognizes that it is its responsibility to teach students tools they are already being asked to use in summer internships. We want students to have these skills and, frankly, even to lead some of the professionals ten or twenty years their senior.

However, I also want them to use these tools with an understanding of ethics, the technology’s potential, and its current limitations. I have worked with students at Ivy League institutions where professors ask students to create discussion posts—sometimes composing weekly posts entirely independently, signing an honour statement confirming their independent work, and sometimes generating drafts with AI prompts. The students are then asked to review both versions and write a critical analysis comparing how the AI-generated responses align with their thinking, noting the strengths and weaknesses. They may also be asked to refine their prompts to see how to use AI more effectively.

I think about this a lot. I also recall a mentor of mine, Professor Jean Chall, a professor at Harvard University who was responsible, in the 1970s and 1980s, for reintroducing phonics into reading curricula when less effective methods were in use. When I was at Harvard, they announced their first technology and education program. We, the students in the reading program, asked Professor Chall for her thoughts on this new direction. She said, “Technology is wonderful. It does great things now; I can’t imagine what it will do someday. But there are two things AI will never replace: the thrill of holding a page-turner in your hands and the impact of a fabulous teacher.”

Regarding Professor Chall and the ways in which AI is shaping assessment, I am currently working with groups exploring how AI can make assessments more accessible and cost-effective. It is an exciting field, and I am glad to be a part of it. There are also real necessities in training both teachers and students so that AI serves as an adjunct to instruction rather than a replacement.

Jacobsen: For children recovering from traumatic brain injury or cancer, what are the realistic limits on the resilience and adaptability of the developing brain?

Mannis: Our knowledge base has grown substantially in this area, and we expect to learn much more as we observe development and outcomes across the lifespan and the impact of new intervention methods. The good news is that while cancer diagnoses in children are increasing, so too are our abilities to identify cancers earlier and, most importantly, help children survive and experience long-term remission.

However, cancer and other brain injuries can significantly impact the developing nervous system. We know that interventions—whether surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation—can save lives, but they may also affect brain development.

What we’re beginning to understand is that some general patterns emerge, but many factors influence outcomes: the type of intervention, the location of a brain tumour, the duration of chemotherapy or radiation, and the number of schoolchildren missed—especially in cases involving stem cell transplants or extended hospitalization.

Interventions in younger children tend to be more pervasive and can affect intelligence or functioning more globally, as the developing brain is still forming its foundational structures. When diagnosis and intervention occur during adolescence or young adulthood, the effects tend to be more specific and localized. Part of the reason for this is that in younger children, the brain is still growing rapidly through processes such as myelination—an increase in the insulating sheath that helps nerve cells send signals quickly.

As you so eruditely discussed, there is also the concept of pruning—the idea that certain neural tracts become particularly strong while other neurons and less efficient tracts are eliminated and do not develop similarly. 

For example, if a child is very young—say, eighteen months or four years old—the tumour or cancer is developing against the backdrop of a rapidly developing nervous system. The interventions required may save the child’s life, but they inevitably impact brain development as well. Younger children are acquiring foundational skills: developing language, learning to skip, and mastering the rules for breaking long words into syllables. Both the disease and the treatment occur during this critical initial skill-building period.

That scenario differs from a diagnosis at age fifteen, eighteen, or twenty-three. In those cases, individuals typically retain most of what they had already acquired before the illness. Their overall intelligence or reasoning ability is usually preserved, and they have learned essential academic and coping skills—such as managing homework even in distracting environments or tolerating frustration in ways that younger children may not yet have developed. They also tend to have had positive life experiences that provide essential context and resilience compared to younger children, who may be more vulnerable.

So, when a diagnosis occurs in adolescence or early adulthood—say at fourteen, nineteen, or twenty-two—basic skills like reading are typically maintained. However, there may be impacts on processing speed (how quickly they absorb new information) or executive functions (their ability to plan, organize, and juggle multiple tasks). For example, they may find reading and understanding new material more challenging, like a chapter on the French Revolution, without the same background knowledge or mental energy.

From an educational standpoint, one of our goals is to increase the knowledge base of teachers and administrators. Because brain injury and cancer survivorship are less common than, for example, dyslexia or ADHD, there is often less awareness in school systems about how best to support these students. It’s important to educate teachers so they can collaborate with families and specialists, ensuring that students receive necessary accommodations—such as more frequent breaks, a reduced course load, or a shorter school day to manage fatigue.

At the same time, we now understand the importance of fostering agency in children who have experienced these challenges. For example, when I work with children who are cancer survivors or have had a brain injury, we often practice scripts for emails or private meetings with teachers or professors so they can share (if they wish) their history and the strategies that help them succeed. This can open the door to a partnership with the teacher, making it easier for the student to transition into the new school year.

However, it’s also important to recognize that repeatedly explaining their history and advocating for accommodations can be retraumatizing for children and their families. Even well-meaning adults—who often hold more power in these situations—may inadvertently make students feel different or marginalized simply by requiring them to relive their difficult experiences.

That’s, of course, what happens in large medical systems. One of the best things we can do is to recognize this dynamic and work with children and their families to find ways to mitigate it while engaging kids in problem-solving. We often refer to this as developing metacognitive awareness.

For example, I might ask a student, “What about spacing out the deadlines for your book report and your term paper that you think will help you, Johnny?” Or, “What do you see as the logic behind waiting to take the SAT next year rather than this year? How will that help as you adjust to a reading-heavy history course?” The more we model and help children communicate what helps or hinders them, the more they can amplify their experiences and engage others in collaborative problem-solving that meets their needs.

Jacobsen: My last two questions. How can parents distinguish between typical developmental challenges and signs of a learning disability? How can we design educational approaches to maintain engagement while supporting healthy brain development?

Mannis: The distinction between typical development and a learning disability has become more pronounced as awareness grows around different difficulties. For instance, I increasingly hear from families about “time blindness”—difficulty estimating how long tasks will take. While using this label can sometimes feel pathologizing, recognizing that such challenges exist can also be helpful.

It’s tricky to make these distinctions because we’ve had tremendous disruptions—such as school districts and private schools sometimes using ineffective reading instruction methods. When children are asked to tackle advanced reading in fifth grade and struggle, is it undiagnosed dyslexia or a need to strengthen foundational skills that were not adequately taught in the early grades? The disruptions caused by COVID-19 and the dual role of technology as both a tool and a hindrance have further complicated our understanding.

One of the best ways for parents to distinguish between developmental challenges and learning disabilities is to build a trusted community and seek input from others—through parent groups (which I often run), discussions with learning specialists, or consultations with pediatricians. Informal networks—the so-called “mommy network”—can be very effective, as parents share experiences and learn what concerns are resolved on their own, which require formal evaluation and intervention.

Alongside that, I recommend two additional strategies. First, try to think across the developmental trajectory. For example, some people approach me in their twenties, saying, “I have ADD.” It may be that underlying difficulties were present earlier and are now more pronounced in the context of law school or other demanding environments. It’s unusual for ADD to emerge as a completely new issue in adulthood—typically, there are earlier indicators in childhood.

It is unusual for a twenty-two-year-old to present with these challenges without an earlier history suddenly. So, looking back—whether you’re the individual or the parent—and identifying those patterns is important. For example, research shows that between sixty and eighty percent of people with dyslexia have what is called language-based dyslexia because reading is fundamentally about recognizing and processing words visually.

Most people with dyslexia have an earlier history. They may have been slower to start speaking, had trouble following multi-step directions in first grade, or experienced dysgraphia—difficulty holding a pencil and writing letters neatly while organizing their thoughts.

These challenges may become more pronounced in demanding environments like law or medical school, but there were probably earlier indicators. One practice I encourage for parents, as old-fashioned as it may sound, is to keep a file on your phone or a notepad by your bedside—these things might keep you up at two in the morning. Write it down when you notice something—whether it’s a concern, an area of strength, or an example of what works. This allows you to step back, reflect, and, when working with experts like me, provide specific, meaningful examples that can guide distinguishing between typical development and learning challenges.

Regarding educational approaches supporting healthy brain development, I recommend thinking tactically about why we use specific new tools while recognizing the value of traditional methods. I work with students worldwide via Zoom, including those who live far from specialists in giftedness, dyslexia, or brain tumour survivorship. Technology like Zoom, AI, and digital markup tools can be invaluable for sharing and annotating materials, especially for visual learners.

On the other hand, research shows that people process information differently when reading from a screen than when holding a physical book. Deep reading tends to be more effective with a printed book. So, I recommend making time for families to read together—participating in book clubs, discussing podcasts or interviews, and engaging in meaningful conversations during daily routines, such as car rides to visit relatives.

We also want to ensure that children and adults have time for rest, play, and enjoyable activities that allow for reflection. Scott, when we first spoke, you mentioned that your interest in a college project led you to take a leadership role in writing, which ultimately shaped your current work. That is an excellent example of how having the freedom to try something new, feeling comfortable approaching others, and having the mental space to experiment can lead to unexpected satisfaction and achievements.

Finally, I want to emphasize the importance of parents and teachers working together and truly having knowledge and understanding. Let me give you one example.

Many technology-based tools can be helpful for both parents and teachers. Unfortunately, not enough time is dedicated to training teachers on how to use this information effectively—how to customize it, how to extract what is particularly relevant for their class, their weekly topics, or for an individual student. Teachers often do not have the luxury of the preparation and communication time they truly need.

Imagine what could happen if parents fully understood the value of some PowerPoints provided by textbook publishers and how they could sit with their children and review those materials—especially when children feel overwhelmed during finals season. Many of my high school students are preparing for finals, so I know their stress. Finding ways for teachers, parents, and students to use available tools collaboratively can enhance learning to support brain development and problem-solving skills.

We talked about metacognition—being able to analyze, “Here’s what helps me,” whether it’s using AI, reviewing a PowerPoint, or planning because I know I will be coming home late from a Yankees game. (Sorry, last night’s walk-off home run was incredible—I’m a big Yankees fan!) This means asking: “What does this mean for me? How should I talk to my teacher?” Maybe I’m writing for the school newspaper’s sports section, but I also have a term paper due. How can I communicate with my teacher to prioritize my studying and maximize my time before the holiday weekend?

That is a much more engaged, proactive, higher-level way of using technology and understanding executive function and organizational skills. Hopefully, this approach puts students in the driver’s seat, empowering them to engage meaningfully with the adults who support them.

Jacobsen: Rebecca, thank you so much for your time today. I appreciate it.

Mannis: It was my pleasure. Thank you for your thoughtful questions and the opportunity to share my expertise. It was great to meet you. Let’s continue this conversation.

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More resources: https://ivy-prep.com/about/.

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